This 12 months marks the 700th anniversary of the loss of life of Marco Polo (1254–1324), the legendary Venetian traveler who launched Asia to the West.

Yet regardless of Marco Polo’s widespread recognition in China, there exists just one rigorous Chinese translation of “The Travels of Marco Polo.” Completed by Feng Chengjun and revealed by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1936, this translation falls in need of assembly fashionable requirements of accuracy, fluency, and magnificence. Feng summarized every chapter utilizing classical Chinese, adhering to the literary conventions of that period. Furthermore, he relied on a contemporary French version annotated by A. J. H. Charignon that was itself not at all times correct.

In 2011, Rong Xinjiang, a historical past professor at Peking University and a number one scholar of Sino-foreign relations throughout the medieval interval, introduced collectively a research group to annotate “The Travels of Marco Polo.” The group was a who’s who of Chinese medievalists, together with consultants on Mongol historical past, Iranian research, and Chinese relations with the Silk Road kingdoms. While their translation — primarily based on a 1938 version of the textual content annotated by A.C. Moule and Paul Pelliot — stays unfinished, their work has already resulted in a number of books on Marco Polo, the Silk Road, and medieval buying and selling hubs just like the japanese metropolis of Yangzhou.

In late March, Rong sat down with Sixth Tone for a wide-ranging dialog about his work, the lifetime of Marco Polo, and the uncertainties surrounding his story.

Sixth Tone: You are an professional in Marco Polo research. But it’s well-known that many individuals doubt the authenticity of his life and journey. What is your perspective on this?

Rong Xinjiang: Marco Polo positively existed. His household’s home nonetheless stands right this moment. Many contracts from his household have been preserved within the archives of Venice. During that point, Venice’s business community prolonged into the japanese Mediterranean. The Polo household was concerned in enterprise, establishing quite a few business outposts from West to East. Marco Polo’s legendary travels, a minimum of till he entered Yuan dynasty China (1279–1368), might be traced level by level.

In academia, there is no such thing as a doubt in regards to the existence of Marco Polo. However, there was controversy concerning whether or not he truly visited China. For occasion, Frances Wood, a British scholar, revealed the ebook “Did Marco Polo Go to China?” in 1995. She means that Marco Polo might need compiled his travelogue primarily based on Persian-language commerce manuals and native rumors. Wood’s viewpoint is just not new; the German scholar Herbert Franke proposed an identical thought in 1973.

Additionally, some Chinese students have identified that if Marco Polo held an official place throughout the Yuan dynasty as he claimed, there ought to be related information in Chinese official paperwork. However, conclusive proof has not been discovered up to now.

Sixth Tone: Do you discover these skeptical viewpoints convincing?

Rong: The mainstream view in academia is that Marco Polo did certainly go to China. As early as 1941, Yang Zhijiu found a memorial within the “Yongle Dadian,” a Ming dynasty encyclopedia, that lists the names of three envoys despatched to the “Ilkhanate,” in modern-day Iran, which completely matches the related accounts in Marco Polo’s travelogue.

Furthermore, German sinologist Hans Ulrich Vogel revealed a ebook titled “Marco Polo Was in China” in 2012. In this work, Vogel highlights Marco Polo’s detailed descriptions of historical Chinese salt manufacturing processes and his complete information of Yuan dynasty foreign money — particulars not often present in different medieval literature.

Sixth Tone: But as you talked about earlier, there are not any official Chinese information about Marco Polo. Why is that?

Rong: Keep in thoughts that “The Travels of Marco Polo” incorporates many exaggerated and even fantastical components. Moreover, Marco Polo didn't write the ebook himself; it was narrated to his fellow inmate, an creator, whereas he was imprisoned in Genoa.

However, the fundamental framework of the story stays legitimate: Marco Polo traveled from Venice to Iran, then via Central Asia, the Tarim Basin, the Hexi Corridor, and at last reached Dadu — present-day Beijing. He met Kublai Khan and later explored many areas in southeastern China earlier than departing from the port metropolis of Quanzhou with the three envoys. He escorted the princess Kököchin to Persia for her marriage, and ultimately returned to his homeland.

As for the shortage of official Chinese information about him, I personally agree with the historian Cai Meibiao’s view. Marco Polo didn't maintain a proper official place; as an alternative, he was an “ortoq.” Ortoqs had been a particular service provider group throughout the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Mongol khans, princes, and princesses granted varied privileges to ortoqs, permitting them to conduct enterprise or have interaction in usury utilizing royal cash and tokens. Most of the income had been handed over to the courtroom and the khan, however a small portion may very well be stored for themselves. There is even a monument in Quanzhou devoted to a Uyghur ortoq from this era.

Sixth Tone: So, as a result of Marco Polo was an “ortoq” quite than a proper courtroom official, he isn't recorded in official historic paperwork.

Rong: Exactly. Furthermore, this title not solely explains why Marco Polo is absent from official information but in addition supplies clues about his life. If he certainly served as an ortoq underneath Kublai Khan, he may have lived in China for an prolonged interval even with out figuring out Chinese.

In reality, Marco Polo in all probability didn't communicate Chinese fluently; his proficiency in Mongolian and Persian would have sufficed. This additionally explains why the Chinese metropolis names and references in “The Travels of Marco Polo” don't at all times match normal Chinese pronunciation however align higher with Mongolian and Persian pronunciations.

Sixth Tone: Can you present an instance?

Rong: Certainly. There is a spot talked about in “The Travels of Marco Polo” known as Cotan, positioned within the southwestern area of right this moment’s Tarim Basin. In conventional Chinese historic texts, this place is sometimes called “Yutian,” whereas within the official “History of Yuan,” it's known as “Odon.” Meanwhile, in Muslim historic sources, the identify for this place is “Hotan.” Marco Polo’s “Cotan” clearly aligns extra carefully with “Hotan” and is sort of distinct from “Yutian.”

Sixth Tone: In your opinion, what's the main worth of Marco Polo’s travelogue?

Rong: The distinctive worth comes from the truth that he was a service provider. In Chinese historical past, those that extensively traveled and left behind travelogues usually fall into two classes: non secular figures, such because the Tang dynasty (618–907) monks Yijing and Xuanzang, and diplomats like Zheng He (1371–1433). Merchants’ notes are comparatively scarce, however “The Travels of Marco Polo” fills this hole.

If you learn this ebook carefully, you’ll discover that Marco Polo noticed every place meticulously, paying particular consideration to native merchandise and commodities. He usually commented on which objects can be worthwhile if offered in particular places. It is exactly this service provider’s perspective that gives us with precious information about historical Chinese socio-economic life, distinct from official authorities paperwork.

Sixth Tone: Could you present an replace on the progress of the Chinese translation of “The Travels of Marco Polo”? You’ve been engaged on it since 2011; when do you assume we’ll see it in print?

Rong: Our work goes past mere translation; it includes in depth annotation. When the ebook is ultimately revealed, there could also be solely two volumes of translated textual content, however the annotations may span six or seven volumes. For occasion, let’s take the instance of Cotan. We want to offer detailed annotations in regards to the completely different variations of this place identify in varied regional literature, the historic adjustments that the area underwent, and why Marco Polo didn’t point out jade when describing Cotan. Another instance: Marco Polo talked about that the Mongols had a kind of garment known as “nascisi” (“nasij” in Persian), which was made with gold thread and worn by nobles, making them shine like gold. However, there have been a number of variations of “nascisi.” Which one did Marco Polo truly see? All of this requires us to cross-reference historic and archaeological sources.

You can think about that it is a painstaking and difficult job. Nevertheless, I consider it should be carried out.

(Header picture: A German-language ebook from the fifteenth century on show throughout an exhibition marking the 700th anniversary of Marco Polo’s loss of life, Venice, Italy, April 5, 2024. Andrea Merola/EPA through IC)